Berlin Conference: How Europe carved up Africa 140 years ago

The Scramble for Africa: A Prelude to the Berlin Conference

By the late 19th century, the African continent had become a focal point of interest for European nations, which were rapidly industrializing and seeking new resources to fuel their economies. While trade between Europe and Africa had existed for centuries, the intensity and nature of this interaction shifted dramatically as European powers began to covet direct control over Africa’s vast natural resources. Palm oil, rubber, and other commodities became central to European industrial ambitions, and the idea of "developing and civilizing Africa" was used as a moral justification for intervention. This marked the beginning of the infamous "Scramble for Africa," a period characterized by intense European competition for African territory. Great Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, and King Leopold II of Belgium were among the key players, dispatching emissaries to secure trade treaties and stake claims to vast territories. The process was often chaotic, with European nations planting flags and asserting sovereignty over regions they had barely explored. These actions frequently led to disputes, as overlapping claims sparked tensions between rival powers.़त

The French and British clashed over territories in West Africa, while King Leopold’s ambitions in Central Africa further complicated the situation. Recognizing the potential for outright conflict, European leaders agreed to meet in Berlin, Germany, in 1884-1885 to establish a framework for the colonization of Africa. The Berlin Conference, as it came to be known, was a landmark event that would shape the fate of the continent for generations. However, it is important to note that no African leaders or representatives were invited to participate in this gathering, symbolizing the exclusion and marginalization of African voices in decisions that would profoundly affect their homelands.

The Berlin Conference: Objectives and Participants

The Berlin Conference was convened by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who sought to manage the growing tensions between European powers over African territories. The meeting took place at the Reich Chancellery in Berlin, beginning on November 15, 1884, and concluding on February 26, 1885. The primary objectives of the conference were to clarify territorial claims, ensure free trade and navigation in key river basins such as the Congo and Niger, and establish rules for the colonization process. Fourteen European and North American nations attended the conference, with France, Germany, Britain, and Portugal emerging as the primary stakeholders due to their existing control over significant portions of Africa.

King Leopold II of Belgium also played a significant role, seeking international recognition for the "International Congo Society," which he used to consolidate his personal control over the Congo Basin. Meanwhile, smaller European powers, such as Austria-Hungary, Denmark, and the United States, attended but ultimately gained little from the proceedings. The exclusion of African leaders was a stark reminder of the colonial mindset, which viewed Africa as a continent to be divided and exploited rather than a land inhabited by diverse peoples with their own political and social systems.

The Outcomes of the Berlin Conference

The Berlin Conference resulted in the signing of the General Act, a document comprising 38 clauses that formalized the partition of Africa among European powers. The act established the principle of "effective occupation," requiring colonial powers to demonstrate administrative control over the territories they claimed. It also guaranteed free trade in the Congo and Niger basins, a provision that benefited European commercial interests while undermining local economies. Notably, the United States declined to sign the treaty, reflecting growing anti-imperialist sentiments within the country.

One of the most controversial outcomes of the conference was the recognition of King Leopold’s control over the Congo Free State, a region that would later become notorious for its brutal exploitation. Leopold’s regime was justified under the guise of humanitarianism, but it led to mass atrocities, including forced labor, mutilations, and the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Congolese people. The General Act also included provisions ostensibly aimed at protecting the welfare of African populations and suppressing the slave trade, but these were largely ignored in practice as colonial powers prioritized resource extraction over humanitarian concerns.

The Territorial Division of Africa

The Berlin Conference did not immediately finalize the territorial division of Africa, as many borders were redrawn in subsequent years through bilateral agreements and colonial wars. However, the conference set the stage for the rapid colonization of the continent. By 1890, just five years after the conference, approximately 90% of Africa was under European control, compared to only about 20% before the meeting. The colonial powers imposed arbitrary borders that often disregarded existing ethnic, linguistic, and cultural boundaries, grouping together disparate communities and sowing the seeds of future conflicts. Liberia and Ethiopia were the only African nations to maintain their independence during this period; Liberia had been founded by the United States as a colony for freed slaves, while Ethiopia successfully resisted Italian colonization.

The continent’s territorial division was formalized in the decades that followed, with many of the modern borders emerging only after World War I, when the defeat of the German and Ottoman Empires led to the redistribution of their African territories. France, Britain, Belgium, Portugal, and Italy emerged as the dominant colonial powers, each carving out vast empires across Africa. The division of Africa was often chaotic and arbitrary, reflecting European political and economic interests rather than the needs or identities of the African people.

The Legacy of the Berlin Conference

While some historians argue that the Berlin Conference was not the seminal event in the partition of Africa that it is often made out to be—pointing out that much of the actual territorial division occurred before or after the conference—it is undeniable that the gathering accelerated the colonization process. The conference legitimized European claims to African territories and established a framework for exploitation, setting in motion a chain of events that would have profound and lasting consequences for the continent.

The artificial borders imposed by European powers contributed to political fragmentation, ethnic tensions, and conflict, which continue to affect Africa today. The exploitation of natural resources and the suppression of local cultures disrupted African societies and economies, leaving a legacy of underdevelopment and instability. Even after African nations gained independence in the mid-20th century, the colonial inheritance of weak institutions, fragmented states, and economic dependence posed significant challenges to nation-building.

Many of the problems faced by modern Africa, from civil wars to authoritarian governance, can be traced back to the colonial era and the arbitrary divisions created at the Berlin Conference. As Tanzanian leader Julius Nyerere once observed, the conference left Africa with "artificial nations" that continue to struggle with unity and stability. The legacy of the Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference serves as a stark reminder of the enduring impact of colonialism on the continent.

Conclusion: The Lasting Impact of Colonialism

The Berlin Conference and the Scramble for Africa were pivotal moments in world history, shaping the trajectory of the African continent for over a century. The conference marked the culmination of European ambitions to dominate Africa, leading to the exploitation of its resources, the disruption of its societies, and the imposition of artificial borders that continue to influence the continent’s political landscape. While some nations managed to resist colonization, the vast majority were subjected to foreign rule, enduring brutal regimes like King Leopold’s Congo Free State and the economic exploitation that underpinned colonialism.

The aftermath of colonialism has been complex and far-reaching. Many African countries continue to grapple with the challenges of building stable and prosperous nations, hampered by the legacy of political fragmentation, economic underdevelopment, and social divisions. While progress has been made in some areas, the scars of colonization remain evident, from ongoing conflicts to enduring economic inequalities.

In reflecting on the Berlin Conference and its aftermath, it is clear that the Scramble for Africa was not simply a historical event but a process that continues to shape the modern world. The exploitation, violence, and arbitrary divisions of the colonial era leave a profound lesson about the dangers of external intervention and the importance of self-determination. As Africa continues to navigate its path forward, understanding this history is essential for building a more just and equitable future.